Tag Archives: Amateurs

Traveling skulls. About some skulls and casts from France kept in the storerooms of the Museum of La Plata

By Nathalie Richard, Le Mans Université

The historiography of science museums has mostly emphasized the circulation of specimens from the Souths to the Nords or from the peripheries to the centres. The skulls and casts kept in the collections of the anthropology section of the Museum of La Plata (Argentina) tell a more intricate story.

Certainly, many specimens related to the history of physical anthropology were collected in Argentina and sent to museums in the Western world, for example to the Natural History Museum in Paris or to the Anthropology Society of Paris. But other specimens traveled in the other direction. The catalogue of the anthropology section of the Museum of La Plata, compiled by the director of this section, Robert Lehmann-Nitsche, in 1911, demonstrates this, as well as specimens currently kept in the reserves.

Among these specimens from Europe, many belonged to the collection of Francisco Pascasio Moreno (1852-1919), a wealthy amateur who had built an important collection, kept in a family estate. He donated this collection to the Province of Buenos Aires, allowing the foundation, in 1878, of the Anthropological and Archaeological Museum of the Province, of which he was appointed curator. Moreno travelled to Paris in 1880-1881, where he continued his anthropological research and strengthened his contacts with French scholars, for example with Paul Broca (1824-1880). The Société d’anthropologie de Paris (1859), of which he was the founder, was then an important center for Western physical anthropology. The methods, models of interpretation and practices it promoted served as an inspiration for the creation of many similar associations in Europe and North America. Back in Argentina, Moreno devoted his efforts to the creation of a national museum of which his anthropological museum would be the core. This project failed, and another museum in the city of Buenos Aires became the national museum, but Moreno’s efforts led to the foundation of the Provincial Museum of La Plata, which was gradually established from 1884 onwards in the new provincial capital, where his collections were transferred (see bibliography).

These collections reflected Moreno’s scholarly explorations in Argentina, but also his contacts with scientists and merchants, both locally and abroad. It is thus not surprising that the anthropological series gathered by Moreno contained not only American but also French and European remains. Paul Broca, the Society and its Laboratory of Anthropology founded in 1867 were important providers. Thus, the Museum of La Plata now possesses, among others, original French skulls from the 17th century collected by Broca in Parisian cemeteries.

Fig. 1. Photograph by Nathalie Richard.

Among the skulls from France kept at the La Plata Museum, some have traveled more than others, since they have crossed the Atlantic twice. This is the case, for example, of the skull numbered 1760 in the 1911 catalog (Fig. 1). This cast from the Museum of Natural History in Paris demonstrates the existence of exchanges in both directions between La Plata and Paris (also Lyon, since some series came from the Museum of Natural History in that city). It is an outcome of the relationship established between Moreno and the professor of anthropology of the Paris Museum, Armand de Quatrefages. In 1874, the former sent five skulls to Paris. In return, Quatrefages sent him twelve casts of American busts and skulls (from the north and south) taken from the Parisian collections for his collection, which was still private at that time (Farro 2009). This skull bears an inscription that tells more about its history: “Skull of the ancient inhabitants of the coasts of Peru found in the huacas or tombs of the ruins of the temple of Pachacamac, situated 6 leagues south of Lima – given by Mr. J. Deville”. This important site was excavated in a more systematic way from the end of the 19th century onward, but it was explored by curious and collectors well before this date. In France for example, Joseph Dombey brought back an important collection of ethnographic and archaeological objects of Peru, for part coming from this site in 1785, and gave it to the Royal Cabinet in 1786. From this time on, a somewhat imprecise geographical area called “Peru”, associated with a somewhat vague “Inca” civilization, became an object of curiosity and covetousness among French amateurs of archaeology and from institutions. Numerous objects from this region thus entered private and public collections, through the agency of scholars, often commissioned by institutions, but also through soldiers and merchants (Riviale, 1996). The skull #1760 is the result of this history, while the arrival of its cast in Argentina is related to the will of the Argentinian amateur Moreno to establish his reputation and a dialogue with more famous professional European scholars. Later the transfer of the cast from the private collection to the public museum was the result of Moreno’s strategy to establish his influence on the natural, archaeological and ethnographic sciences in Argentina through the foundation of a museum that would be under his control.

Thus, the French skulls preserved in the Museum of La Plata tell us of connections between scholars, of histories of private and public collections, and of strategies of distinction and reputation based on these collections (for a comparison, Corsi 2008). They also point to a common territory in which scientific methods (anthropometry) and theoretical interpretative frameworks were shared, that of the physical anthropology of the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century. This anthropology, for which Paris was one of the main centers, used “race” as its central concept and considered skulls to be the most important part of the skeleton for assessing anatomical differences between human groups. Based on the identification of what they called “racial types”, the scientists of the time reconstructed the population histories of the various regions of the globe, including the Americas. Moreno, his collections, and later the collections of the Museum of La Plata, participated in this common space in which specimens circulated as much as ideas, and in both directions.

Selected bibliography

Pietro Corsi, Fossils and Reputations. A Scientific Correspondence: Pisa, Paris, London, 1853–1857, Pisa, Edizioni Plus – Pisa University Press, 2008.

Máximo Farro, La formación del Museo de La Plata. Coleccionistas, comerciantes, estudiosos y naturalistas viajeros a nes del siglo XIX, Rosario, Prohistoria, 2009.

Irina Podgorny, “Du Musée au Panthéon en Argentine. Le destin des collections anthropologiques dans l’Argentine contemporaine », Politika, 2019, https://www.politika.io/fr/article/du-musee-au-pantheon-argentine

Irina Podgorny, Margaret Lopes, El desierto en una vitrina. Museos e historia natural en la Argentina, Mexico, Limusa, 2008 (2e éd., Rosario, Prohistoria, 2014)

Pascal Riviale, Un siècle d’archéologie française au Pérou (1821-1914), Paris, L’Harmattan, 1996 (traduction espagnole, https://books.openedition.org/ifea/3568 ).

A Mexican polished pebble at Carnac

By Nathalie Richard, Le Mans Université

In the storerooms of the Carnac Prehistory Museum there is an ordinary-looking pebble, labelled as a “pre-Columbian archaeological polished pebble”. Protected in a plastic bag, it rests in a box alongside other objects also identified as pre-Columbian, authentic or facsimile, several of which are broken.

Nowadays, this pebble has no place in the permanent exhibition of the museum dedicated to the rich local archaeological heritage. However, although it has been put away in the storerooms, it still has a lot to say to the historians of science and collections when they look at it from all sides and analyse the old labels and annotations that are attached to it with the help of the museum archives.

The first story that this pebble recounts is that of the museum and its transformations. Founded in 1882, in a village famous for its Neolithic remains, notably its enigmatic alignments of menhirs, the museum was created thanks to the donation of a private collection and funds for the construction of a dedicated building. As indicated by the number on the pebble and the notation on the sleeve that protects it, this object was part of the collection of the founder, James Miln (1819-1881). This wealthy Scottish aristocrat is a representative of a type of 19th-century science enthusiasts who are sometimes called “grand amateurs”. Given their level of education, leisure time, financial means and social networks they were able to mobilize, these amateurs practiced a science that was little or no different from that of the few professionals. A heir to important estates in Scotland, James Miln practiced the arts and sciences. Before coming to Brittany, he was a member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and is also known as a pioneer photographer. He drew and painted. He came to visit Carnac where he became fascinated with archaeology and carried out excavations. The artefacts he discovered formed the core of the museum’s collection in 1882. But James Miln was a man of his time and the collection he donated also contained ethnographic objects and pieces that were very fashionable at the time and which any archaeological collection worthy of the name had to include. Such was the case of the remains then called “pre-Columbian”, “Mexican” or “Peruvian”, the vestiges of a civilization whose richness was discovered in the 19th century, and that, viewed from Europe, was located in a rather imprecise space and in time. It is not surprising to find such objects in James Miln’s collection.

As this pebble, the first handwritten inventories and printed catalogues indicate, the Carnac Museum was not always as specialized as it is today. Like all museums, it is not a rigid institution and like many of them, it has gradually become specialized, leading to the relegation to its storage rooms, or the outright disappearance, of pieces that belonged to its collections. Alongside the local archaeological pieces and a few ethnographic and “pre-Columbian” objects of the Miln collection, the James Miln Museum displayed collections of natural history and objects related to the local economic activities, notably oyster farming which was developed and modernized in the last decades of the 19th century. The museum’s archives reveal that a lot of energy and funds were devoted to building up a collection of stuffed birds that has now disappeared. These disappearances are not rare, contrary to what one might think. Some collections, such as those of ornithology or entomology, are fragile and when they ceased to be of interest to the museum, they could eventually deteriorate and disappear. The pieces that survived, like this pebble, remind us of this.

The label pasted on the polished pebble tells yet another story, that of the trade in archaeological remains in the 19th century. In the field of archaeology, the worlds of excavators and collectors did not completely overlap. Many collectors did not discover the objects that formed their collections but obtained them through exchanges, gifts or purchases. Auctions of archaeological objects, including prehistoric ones, played an important role in this period. Collectors could also buy from specialized dealers. For “Mexican” antiques, the dealer Eugène Boban (1834-1908) played an important role. After living, collecting and selling archaeological objects in Mexico, Boban opened a Parisian store around 1870 and became one of the leading experts and suppliers of Pre-Columbian objects in the Parisian marketplace. He donated and sold collections to museums and renowned collectors. The objects he sold may be authentic or facsimiles, but some had a provenance that was difficult to establish. Boban’s name is associated with a famous case of forgery, when he sold allegedly Aztec crystal skulls in the 1880s. His name and the address of his store are still visible on the label of the pebble, showing that Miln was one of Boban’s many clients and that he was integrated, as a collector, in the networks dominated by expert dealers.

Thus a simple polished pebble, forgotten in a crate in the basement of a museum, tells us multiple stories of science, collecting and trade. It connects a Breton village of the end of the 19th century to networks of circulation of people and objects on a global scale. In small museums and in their storages, many objects similar to this pebble exist.

Un galet poli mexicain à Carnac

Par Nathalie Richard, Le Mans Université

Dans les réserves du Musée de préhistoire de Carnac se trouve un galet d’apparence ordinaire, étiqueté comme « galet poli archéologie précolombienne ». Protégé dans une pochette plastifiée, il repose dans une caisse au côté d’autres objets également identifiés comme précolombiens, authentiques ou fac-simile, dont plusieurs sont brisés.

De nos jours, ce galet n’a plus sa place dans les vitrines d’un musée qui est consacré au riche patrimoine archéologique local. Mais, bien que remisé dans les réserves, il a encore beaucoup de choses à dire aux historiens des sciences et des collections lorsqu’on l’examine sous toutes ses faces, en analysant aussi les étiquettes anciennes et les annotations qui l’accompagnent et en mobilisant les archives du musée.

La première histoire que ce galet évoque est celle du musée et de ses transformations. Fondé en 1882, dans un village célèbre pour ses vestiges néolithiques, notamment ses mystérieux alignements de menhirs, le musée est créé grâce à la donation d’une collection privée et de fonds destinés à la construction d’un bâtiment. Comme l’indique le numéro inscrit sur le galet et la notation sur la pochette qui le protège, cet objet faisait partie de la collection du fondateur, James Miln (1819-1881). Ce riche aristocrate écossais est représentatif d’un type d’amateurs de sciences du 19e siècle que l’on qualifie parfois de « grands amateurs ». Par leur niveau d’éducation, par les loisirs dont ils disposent, par les moyens financiers et par les réseaux sociaux qu’ils sont capables de mobiliser, ces amateurs pratiquent une science qui ne se distingue pas ou peu de celle que font les rares professionnels. Héritier d’importants domaines en Ecosse, James Miln pratique les arts et les sciences. Avant de visiter la Bretagne, il est membre de la Société des antiquaires d’Ecosse et est aussi connu comme un pionnier de la photographie. Il dessine et il peint. Venu visiter Carnac, il s’y passionne pour l’archéologie et pratique des fouilles. Les objets qu’il découvre constituent le cœur de la collection du musée en 1882. Mais James Miln est un homme de son temps et la collection qu’il donne contient aussi des objets ethnographiques et des pièces alors très à la mode, que toute collection archéologique digne de ce nom devait intégrer. Tel est le cas des artefacts alors appelés « précolombiens », « mexicains » ou « péruviens », traces d’une civilisation dont on découvre au 19e siècle toute la richesse et que, depuis l’Europe, on situe de manière parfois assez imprécise dans l’espace et dans le temps. Il n’est donc pas étonnant de trouver de tels objets dans la collection de James Miln.

Comme l’indique ce galet, les premiers inventaires manuscrits et les premiers catalogues imprimés, le Musée de Carnac n’a pas toujours été aussi spécialisé que de nos jours. Comme tous les musées, il n’est pas une institution figée et comme beaucoup d’entre eux, il s’est progressivement spécialisé, entraînant la relégation dans ses réserves, ou la disparition pure et simple, de pièces qui figuraient dans ses collections. A côté des pièces archéologiques locales et des quelques objets ethnographiques et « précolombiens » de la collection Miln, le Musée James Miln s’est enrichi de collections de sciences naturelles et d’objets qui renvoyaient aux activités économiques locales, notamment l’ostréiculture qui s’est modernisée et développée dans les dernières décennies du 19e siècle. Les archives du musée révèlent ainsi que beaucoup d’énergie et des fonds ont été mobilisés pour constituer une collection d’oiseaux naturalisés qui a aujourd’hui disparu. Ces disparitions ne sont pas rares, contrairement à ce que l’on pourrait penser. Certaines collections, d’ornithologie ou d’entomologie par exemple, sont fragiles et lorsqu’elles perdent leur intérêt pour le musée, elles peuvent finir par se dégrader et par disparaître. Les pièces qui survivent, comme ce galet, nous le rappellent.

L’étiquette collée sur le galet poli raconte encore une autre histoire, celle du commerce des objets archéologiques au 19e siècle. Dans le champ de l’archéologie, les mondes des fouilleurs et des collectionneurs ne se recoupent pas totalement. Beaucoup de collectionneurs n’ont pas découverts eux-mêmes les objets qui composent leurs collections, mais ils les ont obtenus par des échanges, par des dons ou par des achats. Les ventes aux enchères d’objets archéologiques, y compris d’objets préhistoriques, jouent un rôle important à cette époque. Mais les collectionneurs peuvent aussi se fournir chez des marchands spécialisés. Pour les « antiquités mexicaines » ou « précolombiennes », le marchand Eugène Boban (1834-1908) joue un rôle essentiel. Ayant résidé, collecté et vendu des pièces archéologiques au Mexique, Boban ouvre un magasin parisien autour de 1870 et devient l’un des principaux experts et l’un des principaux fournisseurs d’objets précolombiens sur la place parisienne. Il a donné et vendu des collections à des musées et à des collectionneurs réputés. Les objets qu’il vend peuvent être authentiques ou des fac-similé, mais certains ont une provenance difficile à établir. Le nom de Boban est ainsi associé à une célèbre affaire de faux, lorsqu’il vendit dans les années 1880, des crânes de cristal prétendument aztèques. Son nom et l’adresse de son magasin sont encore lisibles sur l’étiquette du galet, montrant que Miln est l’un de ses très nombreux clients et qu’il s’intègre, en tant que collectionneur, dans ces réseaux dominés par des marchands-experts. Ainsi un simple galet poli, oublié dans une caisse dans les sous-sols d’un musée, peut nous raconter de multiples histoires de science, de collection et de commerce, et connecter un village breton de la fin du 19e siècle à des réseaux de circulations d’hommes et d’objets d’échelle mondiale. Il existe, dans les petits musées et dans leurs réserves, de nombreux objets similaires à ce galet.